Monday, December 23, 2019

Lithium in the Treatment of Bipolar I Disorder - 1815 Words

Introduction Lithium is the medication most extensively used to treat the mania and depression of Bipolar I. However, due to the high incidence of inadequate preventive response, as well as a host of undesirable side effects and a narrow therapeutic index, health care providers have sought other mood stabilizing medications for either monotherapy or use with Lithium. One such medication is Carbamazepine, used either in monotherapy or in combination with other medications. While pharmacotherapy is classically used to treat Bipolar I Disorder, health care providers are finding that psychosocial treatments can assist in more effective treatment of some facets of the disease, encouraging patient collaboration, participation and education, which ultimately may enhance long-term mood stabilization, occupational and social functioning, and quality of life. Body: Lithium in the Treatment of Bipolar I Disorder, including Parameters and Strength of Evidence Supporting Treatment. Lithium is the medication most extensively used to treat the mania and depression of Bipolar I. Marketed under the brand names of Eskalith or Lithobid (Martin, 2011), Lithium is often prescribed as maintenance therapy due to its highly-reported success in reducing the frequency/severity of mania, preventing mania, lessening depression and reducing the risk of suicide (Wyatt, 2011). What is more, researchers have found that the earlier Lithium is used, the higher the reduction of morbidity amongShow MoreRelatedBipolar Dissorder: A Brief Summary Essay1724 Words   |  7 PagesThe event of bipolar disorder has been a mystery since the 16th century. Records have shown that this problem can appear in almost anyone. It is clear that in our social world many people live with bipolar disorder. Regardless of the number of people suffering from the disease, we are still waiting for an explanation regarding the causes and cure. One fact of which we are aware, is that bipolar disorder severely undermines its’ victims ability to obtain and maintain social and occupational successRead MoreSymptoms And Symptoms Of Bipolar Disorder1062 Words   |  5 Pagesthough bipolar disorder affects only a small percent of the population in the United States, this disorder is associated with several burdens. Bipolar disorder does not only affect the diagnosed individual, but their relatives also. In addition, people with this disorder are at high risk of attempting suicide. Thus, it is crucial that these people are compliant with their treatments. Treatment for this disorder has been evolving over the years. Many people have heard of bipolar disorder, but oftenRead More Bipolar Disorder and the Essay979 Words   |  4 PagesBipolar Disorder and the War on Drugs Bipolar disorder, also known as, manic-depressive illness, is a brain disorder that results in unusual shifts in a persons mood, energy, and ability to function. More than two million American adults (or, about one per cent of the population aged eighteen and older in any given year) are afflicted by this affective disorder (1). Yet, because it cannot be revealed by a blood test or other physiological means, patients may suffer for years before it isRead MoreDifferences Between Disorders1129 Words   |  5 Pages1. Distinguish between bipolar disorder, unipolar depression, dysthymic disorder, and cyclothymic disorder using DSM-5 criteria. (485) Before answering the question let’s see what each term means. Bipolar disorder is a disorder that is marked by alternating or intermixed periods of mania and depression (Comer, 2013, pp.224). Unipolar depression is depression without history of mania (Comer, 2013, pp.224). 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History has shown that this disorder can appear in almost anyone. Even the great painter Vincent Van Gogh is believed to have had bipolar disorder. It is clear that in our society many people live with bipolar disorder, however, despite the amount of people suffering from it, we are still waiting for explanations for the causes and cure. The one fact of which we are aware is that bipolar disorder severely undermines its victimsRead MoreBipolar Disorder And Mental Health910 Words   |  4 Pagespercent of American’s suffer with bipolar disorder but, unless you know someone who has the disorder or have it yourself you probably cannot define the disorder. Bipolar disorder is defined as a brain disorder that causes unusual shifts in mood, energy, activity levels, and the ability to carry out daily tasks by the National Institute of Mental Health. Or that is what the current definition for bipolar disorder is. Alan C. Swann in his article What is Bipolar Disorder says that we are far from a rigorousRead MoreBipolar Depression : A Difficult And Diverse Mood Disorder1258 Words   |  6 PagesBipolar disorder could be described as a difficult and diverse mood disorder, witch could be defined by the amount of depressive, manic, hypomanic, and mixed episodes. Aretaeus of Cappadocia had been the first to practice and have the best information on bipolar depression in the medical field during the 1st Century in Greece. His notes between mania and depression had been overlooked for a very long time. Greeks and Romans were responsible for the terms mania and melancholia, which now mean manicRead MoreTreatments For Bipolar II Disorder Essay1430 Words   |  6 PagesTreatments for bipolar II disorder target any of the three types of factors that I mentioned last. The neurological, psychological, and social factors and the effects of any successful treatment extend to all three of these factors (Rosenberg Kosslyn, 2011). Although few studies have been done on the efficiency and safety of pharmacological treatments for bipolar II disorder the neurological factors are usually treated with a type of mood stabilizer, which is a medication that minimize s mood swings

Saturday, December 14, 2019

P1 Identifying the Documents Used to Record Business Transactions Free Essays

P1 Identifying the Documents Used to Record Business Transactions 1. Issue of a Purchase Order A  purchase order (PO)  is document issued by the buyer  to the  seller, indicating types, quantities, and agreed prices for products or services the seller will provide to the buyer. Sending a purchase order to a supplier is a legal offer to buy products or services. We will write a custom essay sample on P1 Identifying the Documents Used to Record Business Transactions or any similar topic only for you Order Now If the seller agrees to selling to the buyer it forms a contract between the two. It should include: * The order number, so it can be traced and matched with invoices and statements * The purchasers name and address which is usually across the middle of the document * The price The name and address of the supplier * The catalogue/reference number * Authorisation i. e. signature and date * A description of the goods required The Delivery Address May Be Different Companies use Purchase Orders for several reasons: price * Purchase orders allow buyers to clearly and explicitly communicate their intentions to sellers * Sellers are protected in case of a buyer’s refusal to pay for goods or services * Purchase orders help a purchasing agent to manage incoming orders and pending orders If The Order Is Not Properly Authorised It Will Not Be Processed 2. Delivery Note This is the document is sent with the goods. It lists the items which have been sent. The buyer uses this to check the goods ordered have arrived. It is signed by the buyer and it is then sent back to the seller as a proof of delivery. The person receiving the goods signs it after checked the quantity of the goods delivered. Information on the Delivery Note: * The method of delivery * Purchase order number * The signature of the person receiving the goods * The catalogue number and quantity The Price Is Usually Not On the Delivery Note 3. Invoice An  invoice is a document issued by a  seller  to the  buyer, indicating the  products, quantities, and agreed  prices  for products or  services  the seller has provided the buyer. An invoice indicates the sale transaction only. Payment terms are usually included on the invoice. The buyer can also have a maximum number of days in which to pay for these goods and is sometimes offered a discount if paid before the due date. This is probably the most important document. This is an official request for payment. It includes: * The Word  Invoice * A Unique Reference Number In Case Of Correspondence About The Invoice * Date of the Invoice. Tax Payments * Name And Contact Details Of The Seller * Tax Or Company Registration Details Of Seller * Name And Contact Details Of The Buyer * Date That The Product Was Sent Or Delivered * Purchase Order  Number * Description Of The Products * Total Amount Charged – optionally with breakdown of taxes, if relevant * Payment T erms – method of payment, date of payment, and details about charges for late payment * The Purchase Order Number – the invoice is checked against the goods ordered, the invoice and the goods delivered, the process is called â€Å"marrying up†. The buyer only pays if all three documents match exactly. Terms – this informs the buyer how long before he has to pay for the goods. The amount of cash discount for fast payment will also be stated. * Carriage – this states the cost of transportation the seller has to pay. Carriage forward means how much the buyer has to pay for transportation * E ; OE – â€Å"errors and omissions expected† this allows the seller to correct any mistakes on the invoice at a later date. * Trade Discount – this amount will be deducted from the invoice price e. g. buying in bulk. * Value Added Tax (VAT) – this is added to the cost of the goods on the invoice. Read also Recording General Fund Operating Budget and Operating Transactions The VAT registration number should be on the invoice, usually below the name and address. * Invoice Number – it will identify a specific invoice for the buyer and seller. Pro Forma Invoice VAT It means for forms sake. It is sent to a new customer, or an existing customer who has been late making a payment It is sent to the buyer before the goods are delivered The details are the same as on an ordinary invoice. The goods are delivered after the payment has been made. When the goods are paid for a normal invoice is issued. It sets out charges which have to be paid in advance. Debit Note This is issued by the seller and sent to the buyer. It Is Essentially an Additional Invoice It is used to correct errors e. g. if goods were invoiced at a lower price than it should been or if some goods were over charged. 4. Credit Note A  credit  note is a document issued by a  seller  to a  buyer. The seller usually issues a credit memo for the same or lower amount than the invoice, and then repays the money to the buyer or sets it off against a balance due from other transactions. A credit note lists the products, quantities and agreed prices for products or services the seller provided the buyer, but the buyer returned or did not receive. It may be issued in the case of damaged goods, errors or allowances. In respect of the previously issued invoice, a Credit Memo will reduce or eliminate the amount the buyer has to pay. Reasons for issuing a credit note: * To correct a mistake e. g. being over charged * Goods are faulty or damaged * The goods were not delivered * The wrong goods were delivered Details on the credit note include: The date * The original invoice number * Date * The reason credit is being given * The addresses of the buyer and seller It Is Often Printed In Red 5. Statement The seller sends all regular customers a statement at the end of the month. This Is a Copy of The Customer’s Accounts in The Sales Ledger. It lists all transactions with customers during the month: * Any payments received * All invoices issued * It shows outstanding ba lance * Any credit note issued Details include: * Date * Details of invoices issued * The name and address of the customers The customer’s account number * The name and address of the supplier * Any credit note issued * Any payments made * The amount outstanding i. e. the balance 6. Goods Received Note(GRN) This is an internal document used by the buyer, usually in the stock department to record goods being delivered. Copies are sent to various parts of the business: * The department that ordered the goods, to let them know that goods have arrived * The accounts department so they can â€Å"marry† the invoice, the purchase order and the GRN * The purchasing department who placed the order. How to cite P1 Identifying the Documents Used to Record Business Transactions, Papers

Friday, December 6, 2019

Key Features of a Bond Essay Example For Students

Key Features of a Bond Essay A. What are the key features of a bond? answer:if possible, begin this lecture by showing students an actual bond certificate. We show a real coupon bond with physical coupons. These can no longer be issuedit is too easy to evade taxes, especially estate taxes, with bearer bonds. All bonds today must be registered, and registered bonds dont have physical coupons. 1. Par or face value. We generally assume a $1,000 par value, but par can be anything, and often $5,000 or more is used. With registered bonds, which is what are issued today, if you bought $50,000 worth, that amount would appear on the certificate. 2. Coupon rate. The dollar coupon is the rent on the money borrowed, which is generally the par value of the bond. The coupon rate is the annual interest payment divided by the par value, and it is generally set at the value of k on the day the bond is issued. To illustrate, the required rate of return on one of southern bells bonds was 11 percent when they were issued, so the coupon rate was set at 11 percent. If the company were to float a new issue today, the coupon rate would be set at the going rate today (october 1998), which would be about 7. 4%. 3. Maturity. This is the number of years until the bond matures and the issuer must repay the loan (return the par value). The southern bell bonds had a 30-year maturity when they were issued, but the maturity declines by 1 year each year after their issue. 4. Issue date. The southern bell bonds were issued in 1977, when interest rates were higher than they are today. 5. Default risk is inherent in all bonds except treasury bondswill the issuer have the cash to make the promised payments? Bonds are rated from aaa to d, and the lower the rating the riskier the bond, the higher its default risk premium, and, consequently, the higher its required rate of return, k. Southern bell is rated aaa. B. What are call provisions and sinking fund provisions? Do these provisions make bonds more or less risky? Answer:a call provision is a provision in a bond contract that gives the issuing corporation the right to redeem the bonds under specified terms prior to the normal maturity date. The call provision generally states that the company must pay the bondholders an amount greater than the par value if they are called. The additional sum, which is called a call premium, is typically set equal to one years interest if the bonds are called during the first year, and the premium declines at a constant rate of int/n each year thereafter. A sinking fund provision is a provision in a bond contract that requires the issuer to retire a portion of the bond issue each year. A sinking fund provision facilitates the orderly retirement of the bond issue. The call privilege is valuable to the firm but potentially detrimental to the investor, especially if the bonds were issued in a period when interest rates were cyclically high. Therefore, bonds with a call provision are riskier than those without a call provision. Accordingly, the interest rate on a new issue of callable bonds will exceed that on a new issue of noncallable bonds. Although sinking funds are designed to protect bondholders by ensuring that an issue is retired in an orderly fashion, it must be recognized that sinking funds will at times work to the detriment of bondholders. On balance, however, bonds that provide for a sinking fund are regarded as being safer than those without such a provision, so at the time they are issued sinking fund bonds have lower coupon rates than otherwise similar bonds without sinking funds. D. How is the value of a bond determined? What is the value of a 10-year, $1,000 par value bond with a 10 percent annual coupon if its required rate of return is 10 percent? Answer:a bond has a specific cash flow pattern consisting of a stream of constant interest payments plus the return of par at maturity. The annual coupon payment is the cash flow: pmt = (coupon rate) ? par value) = 0. 1($1,000) = $100. For a 10-year, 10 percent annual coupon bond, the bonds value is found as follows: 0 1 2 3 9 10 | | | | †¢ †¢ †¢ | | 100 100 100 100 100 90. 91 + 1,000 82. 64 . . . 38. 55 385. 54 1,000. 00 Expressed as an equation, we have: Or: vb = $100(pvifa10%,10) + $1,000(pvif10%,10) = $100 ((1- 1/(1+. 1)10)/0. 10) + $1,000 (1/(1+0. 10)10). The bond consists of a 10-year, 10% annuity of $100 per year plus a $1,000 lump sum payment at t = 10: v annuity = $ 614. 46 pv maturity value = 385. 54 value of bond = $1,000. 00 The mathematics of bond valuation is programmed into financial calculators which do the operation in one step, so the easy way to solve bond valuation problems is with a financial calculator. Input n = 10, kd = i = 10, pmt = 100, and fv = 1000, and then press pv to find the bonds value, $1,000. Then change n from 10 to 1 and press pv to get the value of the 1-year bond, which is also $1,000. K. Suppose a 10-year, 10 percent, semiannual coupon bond with a par value of $1,000 is currently selling for $1,135. 0, producing a nominal yield to maturity of 8 percent. However, the bond can be called after 5 years for a price of $1,050. K. 1. What is the bonds nominal yield to call (ytc)? Answer:if the bond were called, bondholders would receive $1,050 at the end of year 5. Thus, the time line would look li ke this: 0 1 2 3 4 5 | | | | | | 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 1,050 pv1 . pv4 pv5c pv5cp 1,135. 90 = sum of pvs The easiest way to find the ytc on this bond is to input values into your calculator: n = 10; pv = -1135. 90; pmt = 50; and fv = 1050, which is the par value plus a call premium of $50; and then press the k = i button to find i = 3. 765%. However, this is the 6-month rate, so we would find the nominal rate on the bond as follows: Knom = 2(3. 765%) = 7. 5301% ? 7. 5%. This 7. 5% is the rate brokers would quote if you asked about buying the bond. You could also calculate the ear on the bond: Ear = (1. 03765)2 1 = 7. 672%. .u54178860fc78d74d3c1f997373348720 , .u54178860fc78d74d3c1f997373348720 .postImageUrl , .u54178860fc78d74d3c1f997373348720 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u54178860fc78d74d3c1f997373348720 , .u54178860fc78d74d3c1f997373348720:hover , .u54178860fc78d74d3c1f997373348720:visited , .u54178860fc78d74d3c1f997373348720:active { border:0!important; } .u54178860fc78d74d3c1f997373348720 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u54178860fc78d74d3c1f997373348720 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u54178860fc78d74d3c1f997373348720:active , .u54178860fc78d74d3c1f997373348720:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u54178860fc78d74d3c1f997373348720 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u54178860fc78d74d3c1f997373348720 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u54178860fc78d74d3c1f997373348720 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u54178860fc78d74d3c1f997373348720 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u54178860fc78d74d3c1f997373348720:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u54178860fc78d74d3c1f997373348720 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u54178860fc78d74d3c1f997373348720 .u54178860fc78d74d3c1f997373348720-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u54178860fc78d74d3c1f997373348720:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: societhf Rejection of Civilization in The Adventur EssayUsually, people in the bond business just talk about nominal rates, which is ok so long as all the bonds being compared are on a semiannual payment basis. When you start making comparisons among investments with different payment patterns, though, it is important to convert to ears. K. 2. If you bought this bond, do you think you would be more likely to earn the ytm or the ytc? Why? Answer:since the coupon rate is 10% versus ytc = kd = 7. 53%, it would pay the company to call the bond, get rid of the obligation to pay $100 per year in interest, and sell replacement bonds whose interest would be only $75. 0 per year. T herefore, if interest rates remain at the current level until the call date, the bond will surely be called, so investors should expect to earn 7. 53%. In general, investors should expect to earn the ytc on premium bonds, but to earn the ytm on par and discount bonds. (bond brokers publish lists of the bonds they have for sale; they quote ytm or ytc depending on whether the bond sells at a premium or a discount. ) L. Disneys bonds were issued with a yield to maturity of 7. 5 percent. Does the yield to maturity represent the promised or expected return on the bond? Answer:the yield to maturity is the rate of return earned on a bond if it is held to maturity. It can be viewed as the bonds promised rate of return, which is the return that investors will receive if all the promised payments are made. The yield to maturity equals the expected rate of return only if (1) the probability of default is zero and (2) the bond cannot be called. For bonds where there is some default risk, or where the bond may be called, there is some probability that the promised payments to maturity will not be received, in which case, the promised yield to maturity will differ from the expected return. M. Disneys bonds were rated aa- by s. Would you consider these bonds investment grade or junk bonds? Answer:the disney bonds would be investment grade bonds. Triple-a, double-a, single-a, and triple-b bonds are considered investment grade. Double-b and lower-rated bonds are considered speculative, or junk bonds, because they have a significant probability of going into default. Many financial institutions are prohibited from buying junk bonds.